A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or from a combination of fission and fusion reactions (thermonuclear bomb). Both bomb types release large quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first test of a fission ("atomic") bomb released an amount of energy approximately equal to 20,000 tons of TNT(84 TJ).
The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released energy approximately equal to 10 million tons of TNT (42 PJ).[1] A thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2 million tons of TNT (5.0 PJ).[2] A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and radiation. Since they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation of nuclear weapons is a focus of international relations policy
The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released energy approximately equal to 10 million tons of TNT (42 PJ).[1] A thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2 million tons of TNT (5.0 PJ).[2] A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and radiation. Since they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation of nuclear weapons is a focus of international relations policy
THE CAUSES OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS IN THE WORLD
Nuclear proliferation is a major issue in the world today. It is particularly relevant at the moment with the worries about Iran and whether they are trying to get nuclear weapons. Let us look at why this is so.
Nuclear proliferation is generally caused by the fact that countries want to be secure and to be powerful. It is also caused to some degree by the fact that it is difficult to prevent. Countries see...
In this particular nuclear history you can not forget the twenty century genuin mr Albert Einstein
In this particular nuclear history you can not forget the twenty century genuin mr Albert Einstein
WHO WAS ALBERT EINSTEIN
One of the greatest physicists of all time, winner and discoverer of the special and general theory of relativity, Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, , of secular German Jewish parents. Einstein was observant for a time, but never had a . A Jewish medical student and family friend — ironically named Max Talmud — introduced Einstein to science books, which Einstein saw as contradicting religious teachings. Einstein did not believe in the commonly accepted anthropomorphic conception of God. “I believe in Spinoza’s God who reveals himself in the harmony of all being, not in a God who concerns himself with the fate and actions of men,” he wrote to a rabbi in 1929
.He spent his early years in Munich where his father set up a small electrochemical business. As a boy he was fascinated by algebra and geometry, though he detested the barracks discipline of German schools. In 1896, he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, graduating in 1900 and receiving his doctorate from Zurich in 1905. Unable to get an academic position, he took a post with the patent office in Bern while continuing to pursue his concern with the fundamental problems of physics.
In 1905, he published four brilliant papers in the Annalen der Physik which were to transform twentieth-century scientific thought. He established the special theory of relativity, predicted the equivalence of mass (m) and energy (e) according to the equation e = mc2, where (c) represents the velocity of light; he created the theory of Brownian motion and founded the photon theory of light (photoelectric effect) for which he received the in 1921.
Einstein joined the German University of Prague in 1910 and then, in 1913, through Max Planck received a Professorship at the Prussian Academy of Science in berlin
Throughout the Weimar years he was lionized, especially abroad, though in not only his work but also his pacifist politics aroused violent animosity in extreme right-wing circles. Anti-semites sought to brand his theory of relativity as 'un-German' and during the Third Reich they partially achieved their objective, when Einstein's name could no longer be mentioned in lectures or scholarly papers, though his relativity theory was still taught.
One of the greatest physicists of all time, winner and discoverer of the special and general theory of relativity, Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, , of secular German Jewish parents. Einstein was observant for a time, but never had a . A Jewish medical student and family friend — ironically named Max Talmud — introduced Einstein to science books, which Einstein saw as contradicting religious teachings. Einstein did not believe in the commonly accepted anthropomorphic conception of God. “I believe in Spinoza’s God who reveals himself in the harmony of all being, not in a God who concerns himself with the fate and actions of men,” he wrote to a rabbi in 1929
.He spent his early years in Munich where his father set up a small electrochemical business. As a boy he was fascinated by algebra and geometry, though he detested the barracks discipline of German schools. In 1896, he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, graduating in 1900 and receiving his doctorate from Zurich in 1905. Unable to get an academic position, he took a post with the patent office in Bern while continuing to pursue his concern with the fundamental problems of physics.
In 1905, he published four brilliant papers in the Annalen der Physik which were to transform twentieth-century scientific thought. He established the special theory of relativity, predicted the equivalence of mass (m) and energy (e) according to the equation e = mc2, where (c) represents the velocity of light; he created the theory of Brownian motion and founded the photon theory of light (photoelectric effect) for which he received the in 1921.
Einstein joined the German University of Prague in 1910 and then, in 1913, through Max Planck received a Professorship at the Prussian Academy of Science in berlin
Throughout the Weimar years he was lionized, especially abroad, though in not only his work but also his pacifist politics aroused violent animosity in extreme right-wing circles. Anti-semites sought to brand his theory of relativity as 'un-German' and during the Third Reich they partially achieved their objective, when Einstein's name could no longer be mentioned in lectures or scholarly papers, though his relativity theory was still taught.
During the 1920s Einstein travelled widely in , and and identified himself with various public causes such as pacifism, , the League of Nations and European unity. Einstein was asked by president and fellow scientist to raise money for the organization and for . Einstein worried the establishment of a Jewish state would provoke conflict with the Arabs, but, like before him, the he faced in Europe convinced him of the need for a Jewish state. In 1921, he went on a fundraising tour of the United States. The following year, he stopped in for 12 days on the way back from a trip to Asia and gave the first-ever scientific lecture at . Einstein said he was proud of how Jews were becoming “a force in the world,” but never visited again.
When came to power in January , Einstein was at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, .
and he never returned to , being almost immediately deprived of his posts in Berlin and his membership of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. His property was seized, a price was put on his head by Nazi fanatics and his books were among those publicly on May 10, 1933, as manifestations of the
un-German spirit.Einstein and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March and stopped in Belgium where he renounced his German citizenship. He returned to the U.S. and never again set foot in Germany. A lifelong opponent of nationalism, Einstein regarded the as a catastrophe for civilization and became an outspoken opponent of National Socialism, making his name became synonymous with treason in the Third Reich.
In 1940, Einstein became a Professor at the Institute of Advanced Studies (Princeton) and an American citizen. Alarmed at the prospect that Hitler's Germany might acquire an atomic bomb after two German physicists had discovered the fission of uranium, Einstein signed a letter to in August 1939, which sparked off the Manhattan project. It was one of the great ironies of his career that the pacifist Einstein, through this action, should have helped initiate the era of nuclear weapons to whose use he was completely opposed.
Four years after the creation of Israel, Einstein was offered the by Prime Minister . Though moved by the , Einstein declined, offering the following statement:
"I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel [to serve as President], and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it. All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official functions. For these reasons alone I should be unsuited to fulfill the duties of that high office, even if advancing age was not making increasing inroads on my strength.
I am the more distressed over these circumstances because my relationship to the Jewish people has become my strongest human bond, ever since I became fully aware of our precarious situation among the nations of the world."
His simplicity, benevolence and good humour as well as his scientific genius gave Einstein a unique fame and prestige among physicists, even though after the mid-1920s he diverged from the main trends in the field, especially disliking the probabilistic interpretation of the universe associated with quantum theory.
In 1955, Einstein was scheduled to deliver a speech marking Israel’s seventh Independence Day on ABC, NBC and CBS. On April 17, nine days before the speech, he experienced internal bleeding that landed him in the hospital. He reportedly took a draft of the speech with him to the hospital, but he died the next day at his after refusing emergency surgery. The Israel State Archive published drafts of the speech in 2013.
[T]he establishment of Israel is an event which actively engages the conscience of this generation....It is, therefore, a bitter paradox to find that a State which was destined to be a shelter for a martyred people is itself threatened by grave dangers to its own security. The universal conscience cannot be indifferent to such peril
Albert Einstein developed his theory of the
relationship between mass and energy one year
later. The mathematical formula is E=mc 2
, or
“energy equals mass times the speed of light
squared.” It took almost 35 years for someone
to prove Einstein’s theory
ORIGINAL OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
This goes back to the second world war which started from 1939-1945
From the letter below written by Albert Einstein to the President of the United States has detail of nuclear weapons.
Albert Einstein
Old Grove Road
Peconic, Long Island
August 2nd, 1939
F.D. Roosevelt
Old Grove Road
Peconic, Long Island
August 2nd, 1939
F.D. Roosevelt
President of the United States
White House
Washington, D.C.
White House
Washington, D.C.
Sir:
Some recent work by E. Fermi and L. Szilard, which has been communicated to me in manuscript, leads me to expect that the element uranium may be turned into a new and important source of energy in the immediate future. Certain aspects of the situation which has arisen seem to call for watchfulness and if necessary, quick action on the part of the Administration. I believe therefore that it is my duty to bring to your attention the following facts and recommendations.
In the course of the last four months it has been made probable through the work of Joliot in France as well as Fermi and Szilard in America--that it may be possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium, by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated. Now it appears almost certain that this could be achieved in the immediate future.
This new phenomenon would also lead to the construction of bombs, and it is conceivable--though much less certain--that extremely powerful bombs of this type may thus be constructed. A single bomb of this type, carried by boat and exploded in a port, might very well destroy the whole port together with some of the surrounding territory. However, such bombs might very well prove too heavy for transportation by air.
The United States has only very poor ores of uranium in moderate quantities. There is some good ore in Canada and former Czechoslovakia, while the most important source of uranium is in the Belgian Congo.
In view of this situation you may think it desirable to have some permanent contact maintained between the Administration and the group of physicists working on chain reactions in America. One possible way of achieving this might be for you to entrust the task with a person who has your confidence and who could perhaps serve in an unofficial capacity. His task might comprise the following:
a) to approach Government Departments, keep them informed of the further development, and put forward recommendations for Government action, giving particular attention to the problem of securing a supply of uranium ore for the United States.
b) to speed up the experimental work, which is at present being carried on within the limits of the budgets of University laboratories, by providing funds, if such funds be required, through his contacts with private persons who are willing to make contributions for this cause, and perhaps also by obtaining co-operation of industrial laboratories which have necessary equipment.
I understand that Germany has actually stopped the sale of uranium from the Czechoslovakian mines which she has taken over. That she should have taken such early action might perhaps be understood on the ground that the son of the German Under-Secretary of State, von Weizsacker, is attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, where some of the American work on uranium is now being repeated.
Yours very truly,
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein
Roosevelt decided that the letter required action, and authorized the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium. The committee was chaired by Lyman James Briggs, the Director of the Bureau of Standards (currently the National Institute of Standards and Technology), with Adamson and Hoover as its other members. It convened for the first time on October 21. The meeting was also attended by Fred L. Mohler from the Bureau of Standards, Richard B. Roberts of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and Szilárd, Teller and Wigner. Adamson was skeptical about the prospect of building an atomic bomb, but was willing to authorize $6,000 ($100,000 in current USD) for the purchase of uranium and graphite for Szilárd and Fermi's experiment.
In 1942 there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons that there might be a possibility of igniting the Earth's atmosphere with a large enough nuclear explosion. This would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom, with release of energy. This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed. Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying whether there was a possibility in the very early days, and concluded there was no possibility due to inverse Compton effect cooling of the fireball.[3] Richard Hamming, a mathematician, was asked to make a similar calculation just before Trinity, with the same result.[4] Nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years, and was the source of black humor at the Trinity test.
In 1942 there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons that there might be a possibility of igniting the Earth's atmosphere with a large enough nuclear explosion. This would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom, with release of energy. This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed. Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying whether there was a possibility in the very early days, and concluded there was no possibility due to inverse Compton effect cooling of the fireball.[3] Richard Hamming, a mathematician, was asked to make a similar calculation just before Trinity, with the same result.[4] Nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years, and was the source of black humor at the Trinity test.
The Advisory Committee on Uranium was the beginning of the US government's effort to develop an atomic bomb, but it did not vigorously pursue the development of a weapon. It was superseded by the National Defense Research Committee in 1940,[18] and then the Office of Scientific Research and Development in 1941.[19] The Frisch–Peierls memorandumand the British Maud Reports eventually prompted Roosevelt to authorize a full-scale development effort in January 1942.[20] The work of fission research was taken over by the United States Army Corps of Engineers's Manhattan District in June 1942, which directed an all-out bomb development program known as the Manhattan Project.[21]
Einstein did not work on the Manhattan Project. The Army denied him the work clearance needed in July 1940, saying his pacifist leanings made him a security risk,[22] although he was allowed to work as a consultant to the United States Navy's Bureau of Ordnance.[23][24] He had no knowledge of the atomic bomb's development, and no influence on the decision for the bomb to be dropped.[13][22] According to Linus Pauling, Einstein later regretted signing the letter because it led to the development and use of the atomic bomb in combat, adding that Einstein had justified his decision because of the greater danger that Nazi Germany would develop the bomb first.[25] In 1947 Einstein told Newsweek magazine that "had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing
Over one hundred scientists who had recently fled from the Nazis contributed immeasurably to the effort. America benefited by being one of the few countries during these dark years before and during World War II that opened its doors to these refugees. The "Martians," four brilliant scientists who were born in the same neighborhood in Budapest, Hungary, allegedly earned their nickname from Enrico Fermi. A refugee from Italy himself, Fermi quipped that there must have been a spaceship from Mars that landed in Budapest, dropping off the extraordinarily gifted Edward Teller, Eugene Wigner, John von Neumann, and Leo Szilard. The British mission, led by Sir James Chadwick, also made very important contributions. Well versed in experimental physics, the 20-plus members of the British mission in Los Alamos were instrumental in translating the abstract notions of the theorists into reality
OTHER PEOPLE WHO CONTRIBUTED IN MAKING NUCLEAR BOMB
EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR WAR INTO THE WORLD
The Effects of Nuclear Weapons. ... Blast, thermal radiation, and prompt ionizing radiation cause significant destruction within seconds or minutes of anuclear detonation. The delayed effects, such as radioactive fallout and other environmental effects, inflict damage over an extended period ranging from hours to years.
Death is highly likely and radiation poisoning is almost certain if one is caught in the open with no terrain or building masking effects within a radius of 0–3 km from a 1 megaton airburst, and the 50% chance of death from the blast extends out to ~8 km from the same 1 megaton atmospheric explosion.
PLEASE WE HAVE TO PRAY MOREIN ORDER TO AVOID THE NUCLEAR BATTLE INTO OUR PLANET.